ernaldisagreementastothespeedofcollectivization,preliminarycollectivizationwaslaunchedsince1952.China’speasantrysawChairmanMaoandtheCommunistPartyasheroicmuchmorethanRussia’speasantryhadseenStalinandtheBolsheviksasheroes,andthrough1956thepeasantrycooperatedwiththeParty.TherewasnoneoftheresistanceandwarfarethathadaccompaniedthecollectivizationofagricultureintheSovietUnion.
　　Thecollectivizationofagriculturewasbasicallycompletedwiththeestablishmentofthepeople’scommunesin1958.ThePeople’sCommunesystemwasdefinedasaunityofpoliticsandproduction,inwhichallmembersofthecommunejointlyownedproperty.Essentially,thecommunesystemwasbasedonprivatecontractofitsmembersandtheprincipleofvoluntariesandmutualbenefit,however,itturnedoutyetascoerciveinstitutionalarrangement,whichwasmadebygovernmentwithpoliticalpower.InthemovementtoachievethePeople’sCommune,peasantshadnochoicewhetherornottojoin.
　　Communesweredesignedaslarge,embracingscoresofvillagescreatedbycombiningsome20or30advancedproducers’cooperativesof20,000to30,000membersonaverage,insomecasesthemembershipvariedfromasfewas6,000toover40,000.Itwasinstitutedasanorganizationwithfunctionsofthelowestleveloflocalgovernmentandthehighestleveloforganizationinagriculturalproduction.Communesconsistedofthreeorganizationallevels:thecentralcommuneadministration;theproductionbrigade,andtheproductionteam,whichgenerallyconsistedofaroundthirtyfamilies.Thiskindofinstitutionwasanorganizationofhierarchies,inwhichthecommuneactedaspoliticalunitandtopmanager,thebrigadesplayedroleofco-coordinatorsbetweenthecommuneandthebasicproductionteams.Theproductionteamwasbasicunitsofproductionandaccounting.Sincethepeople’scommunesystemwasatoolestablishedtoextractresourcesfromagriculturesectorforindustrialization,asaresult,itneglectedpeasants’incentivecompletely.Inordertoletthepeople’scommunesystemrun,thecentralgovernmentdesignedanrelativeeffectivemechanismtoencouragemanagersineachhierarchytoworkenthusiastically,yet,ineachlevel,themanagersweretreateddifferentlyandtherewasacleardifferenceinaspectsofidentityandwelfarebetweenthemanagersofthecommuneandofthebrigadesorproductionteams.
　　Thecommunewasdefinedasadministrativeorganandexecutedthecentralgovernment’sorders,andpaidfromcentralgovernment’sbudget,thereforethemanagersinthelevelofcommunewere“statecadres”,thatmeanstheywereformalgovernmentalofficialsandgotwagemonthly.Thesestatecadrescouldbepromotedandbecameofficialsofgovernmentaldivisionsinhigherlevel.Brigadesandproductionteamswerecollectiveeconomicorganizations,theirrunningexpensescamefromproductionteams’tribute.Managersinbrigadeslevelwerecalled“collectivecadres”.Theywereremuneratedintheirownproductionteamsaccordingtotheirlaborquotas.Theirwagewaspaidintheformofproductsinsteadofmoney.Managersinproductionteamswere“teamcadres”,theywerealsomembersoftheproductionteam.Theyworkedaspeasantliketheirworkmates,andwerepaidinproductsaccordingtolaborquotas.Teamcadrescouldbepromotedtocollectivecadres.Collectiveandteamcadreshadlittlepossibilitiestobepromotedandbecamemembersofstatecadres.Nevertheless,ascollectiveandteamcadreshadsomeprivileges.Forexample,collectivemanagershadthepowerofassigningstate’sdeliveryquotasandproductiontasksamongproductionteams,theydeterminedwhocouldenrolledinstate-ownedfactories,universitiesandarmy.Theproductionteammanagersexecutedthepowerofassigningworkanddistributingproductsamongcollectivemembers.Furthermore,intheperiodofmanypoliticalmovementsandclassstruggles,theidentityofcadrecouldprotecttheirfamilies,relativesandthemselvesfrombeingdenouncedandbullied(Tan,1999).
　　Atbeginning,thecommuneitselfwasdecoratedastherepresentationofsocialistsocietyandhadallmeritsofpublicownership.Althoughnearlyalltheprivatepropertyhadbeendeprived,peasantshadtopraisethenewsystemprofusely.itwastrue,mostpoorpeasantsfoundthattheirliveschanged,byeatinginthepublicdiningtheydidn’tneedtoworryabouttheirownbudgetanymore,andbyworkingtogether,theywerenotnecessarytotrytheirbest.Followingpropagandaappearedinnewspaperseveryday:
　　Thepublicdininghallsaredistributedinawaythatmembersneedwalkonlyafewminutesfromtheirhomestotaketheirmeals.OnthefreshlywhitewashedwallsoftheoneonShihfuchienStreet,atypicalestablishment,thereisabigsloganinred,whichreads,HighSpiritsforHigherProduction!Itskitchen,towhichthevisitorisdrawnbythearomaoffoodandtheclatterofpots,ismanagedbyTuHsiu-chen,thefirstvolunteercook,whohassincelearnedlarge-scalecateringfromthechefatoneofthecity’srestaurants.
　　Thewallsofthespaciousdiningroomaredecoratedwithpaintings,asahomemightbe.Itstablesandchairs,thoughsimple,arescrubbedtoashiningcleanliness.Thefoodisfreshandtasty--vegetablesaregrownbythecommuneitself.Thestaffmakeaspecialpointofstudyingthedietandpreferencesofoldpeople,children,nursingmothersandmemberswithailments.Thereisaseparateroomforparentswithsmallchildren,providedwithlowtablesforthelittleones.(People’sDaily,1958)
　　However,inpractice,thisideal,extremelycentralizedformcommunedidn’tkeeprunningwellinmostareas.Verysoonitbecameclearthatinmostcasesthecommunesweretooclumsytocarryoutsuccessfullyallthemanagerialandadministrativefunctionsthatwereassignedtothem.Thecooperativeledtolow-efficiency,theadvantagesoflarge-scaleproductivitydidn’tarriveaspeasantsanticipated,productivitybegantodropanddiscontentemerged.Thereasonliesininsufficientutilizationofresourcesandlackofincentiveofpeasants.Atonehand,theoutputofcooperationcomesfromallmembers’work,inwhichthetributeofsinglehouseholdisdifficulttobemeasured.Sothatopportunismlikeshirkinghappenednaturallyveryfrequently.Aneffectivewaytopreventshirkingistohaveallmemberssupervised,buttheseasonalworkandspatialdiversityofagriculturalproductiveactivitiesmakeitdifficulttototallysupervise.Attheotherhand,althoughbrigadeandproductionteamcadreswereobligedtocompletestate’splanningandallkindsofdeliveries,thecontrolrightandresidualclaimofthepeople’scommunesystemwereinthestate’shand,thesecadresatgrass-levelcouldnotdesignanyreasonableincentivemechanismtoencouragepeasantstoworkhardandproduceaccordingtoreasonablenatur

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