对那些间接地参与诸如爆炸、劫机、恐怖主义和有组织犯罪的罪犯,强调保护无辜的正当程序原则与犯罪控制目的之间的对抗将继续存在。这种对抗在目前发生在辛辛纳提的种族暴动中是普遍存在的,白人警察在残酷镇压众多黑人的示威和暴乱,他们是否真正地执行了法律并且又保护了无辜,又或者他们的偏执是否损害了我们平常认为是公正的人? 自十三世纪的“大宪章”至今,正当程序原则经历了一个漫长的历史阶段。将来在对待该原则的时候应当继续清除政治中的保守思想。一个典型的例子是最近“阿德沃特诉合众国”(Atwater vs. U.S)一案,该案中一位母亲在高速公路上被捕,仅仅由于她把自己的三个孩子单独留在车上而没有给他们系上安全带。这种判决是我们所需要的吗?虽然还有相当大的争论,但是执法人员出于公共安全的目的正一步步地获取更多的权力来做类似的事情,然而在执行中却将该目的置之脑后。本案中,给这位母亲一张罚单并让她给孩子系好安全带就足够了,而不是当着年轻孩子的面对他们的母亲实施逮捕。这应该是美国刑事司法制度改革的方向之一,但我们却正在坚持错误而离正确的道路越来越远。所以,在今后相当长的时间里,正当程序的理念仍然会继续发扬它保障公民权利的传统。
资料来源:http://www.collegetermpapers.com/TermPapers/Government_&_Politics/Due_Process_Revolution.shtml, 附翻译原文: Due Process Revolution
The great promise of America that has made a British colony in the 50 States today is Freedom. Many United States. The history of these freedoms starts centuries ago and has developed, revolutionized, and persisted all the way through today. At the core of these Freedoms is the idea of Due Process, the idea that everyone has rightFreedoms which still today cause people to flock to the s and freedom until they are deprived of them arbitrarily, or by the will of a just third party. Due process has been the most powerful force in American Criminal Justice since its creation and development. It has caused many people to win over the overwhelming odds in court cases and has presided over many righteous decisions that still affect cases today. Due process has also divided the country as public order advocates or individual rights supporters. 法律论文网www.law1954.com/The Development of Due Process is conceived from four important documents, the Magna Charta, The Declaration of Independence, The Declaration of Rights and Grievances, and the U.S. Constitution. The Magna Charta was an English document that gave citizens rights and protection from their ruling body, which in that case was the King of England. The Magna Charta was used by the U.S. to create the Bill of Rights, a part of the Constitution. The Declaration of Rights and Grievances, drafted in 1765, was the original document created by the colonies of their complaints against the crown. The British unfair trials amongst other tragedies were to be fought with Due Process and the creation of other laws to clear the complaints of the current system. This would lead to the start of the Revolutionary War, in 1775. From the aforementioned documents, we would derive the concept of Due Process, the idea that people should have the right to be fairly heard and tried in court before losing life, liberty, or justice. Due process also limits the government’s ability to make laws, ensuring that they are fair and proper. The idea of Due Process and the American Criminal Justice system was furthered again with the creation of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution in 1776. The Constitution, the document known as the supreme law of the land included Bill of Rights, which were the first ten amendments discussing the freedoms and procedures to protect those freedoms in America. The fourth amendment applied specifically to Due Process, stating “,The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.” This secured peoples right to be searched and violated by raids, but at the same time created great controversy in what was to be probably cause, an idea that would be developed and modified many times throughout history. The Fifth Amendment also supported due process in giving any citizen the right against self incrimination. Before their life, liberty, or freedom could be taken away someone other than their selves had to be a witness to their crime or have evidence to convict them. Before this, by force, people could be forced to testify as guilty despite their true innocence or guilt. Next, the sixth amendment changed the courtroom and due process by giving Americans the right to counsel. This gave anyone charged with a crime proper defense of their rights because many people were not able to defend themselves, not knowing the court system. In class the movie Gideon’s Trumpets showed the revolution of right to counsel when he was not able to defend himself in court and convicted due entirely that fact. The Eighth amendment was the next milestone affecting Due Process. The Eighth amendment stated, “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” This protected life, liberty, and freedom even for those convicted of crimes. Several of the movies we watched in class dealt with prison life and cruel and unusual punishment that reoccurred there. With the booming economy caused by slavery at the time, the development of due process slowed. Then, with the Civil War resolved by the victory of the North, the development moved on. The Thirteenth amendment, in 1865, abolished slavery, giving rights to all peoples of the United States as citizens based on the origin of their birth and their time living in the country. This came from the overturning of the Dred Scott case of 1857, which gave the world the idea of “separate but equal.” Soon after, in 1868, the Fourteenth amendment further gave life, liberty, and freedom to everyone by declaring peoples votes would be counted equally and allowing anyone within certain qualifications to run for government positions. It also added the second due process clause that neither could any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or freedom without due process of law.
The Warren court was the prominent force in the development of Due Process, and continued to support Due Process, but not through the creation of new laws or procedures, but through judicial review. This power gave the Supreme Court the ability to hear cases from lower level courts and make their own decision based on Constitution instead of State law. A classic example of the judicial review is the case of Marbury vs. Madison, 1803, which Chief Justice Marshall redecided the case based on the a greater force than state law, the Constitution. This judicial review was again utilized in 1816, in the Martin vs. Hunter’s Lessee. Warren would carry on this tradition in the modern courts making changes to what would become landmark cases t 上一页 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] 下一页
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